2.75 Urine

• Urine contains water salts and urea.
• The removal of urea is a part of excretion and metabolic waste.
• Salts and urea is removed by osmoregulation to maintain isotonic tissue.
• The salt, water and urea composition in each person varies depending on the condition the person is in.

2.74 ADH

• ADH- Anti Diuretic Hormone.
• It flows through the blood stream to the kidneys.
• It is produced in the region of the brain known as the hypothalamus. 
• It controls the amount of water in the blood.
• Tissue fluid should be isotonic with the cells.

2.73 Glucose re-absorption

• A molecule is selected and is reabsorbed back into the blood.
• The molecule gets removed from the blood and is put back in.
• If there is glucose in urine, the person could have diabetes.
• There usually is no glucose in urine.
• In the first convoluted tubule glucose is removed and out back into the blood.

2.72 Water re-absorbtion

• When the ultrafiltration occurs in the Bowman's capsule, too much water is filtered.
• The water is removed from the filtrate.
• It is then added into the blood vessels.
• This is called selective reabsorption.
• As it passes through the Collecting Duct, water is removed from the filtrate. 

2.69 Urinary system

• There are two kidneys in the urinary system with separate blood supplies.
• Which uses process of excretion and filtration.
• Each kidney there is a tube which lead to the bladder called the urethra.
• The ureter carries urine from the kidney to the bladder.
• The urine is conducted to the outside of the body to be excreted which travels down the vagina or penis.

2.68b Osmoregulation

• The fluid which surround cells are isotonic with the cytoplasm of the cells.
• The amount of water going into these cells are equal and remain the same size and shape.
• The kidney controls the composition of our blood.
• Blood circulating in to the tissues it will be concentrated causing hyper tonic tisse fluid or hypo tonic tissue fluid.
• Blood that circulates through our kidney excess water, excess salt can be removed and excreted at the urethra.

2.68a Excretion

Urea contains nitrogen which is toxic to the body and cannot be stored.

Amino acids are normally use for growth but the extra amino acids is excess must be remove there toxic.

The blood circulated to the liver and the amino acids are converted around which is called urea.

The kidney will filter the urea from the blood. 

The urea is drained and collected in the bladder.

2.67b Human organs of Excretion

• Salt and water is from sweat.
• Lungs excrete carbon dioxide which is a waste from respiration.
• The kidneys are responsible for the excretion of excess water (Amino Acids)
• The 3 organs of excretions are the lungs, kidneys and skin.
• The skin would give out water, salt and urea. 

2.67a Excretion in plants

• The process of photosynthesis happens when Carbon dioxide and water which give off oxygen.
• Respiration is C6H12O6 +O2 which which gives off gas as a waste molecule.
• Photosynthesis is CO2 + H2O ----> C6H12O6 This happens due to the release of metabolic waste.
• Glucose molecule is broken down and energy is used to form ATP and get the waste of carbon dioxide and water given off.
• The waste process is called Excretion.

3.34 Causes of Mutation

3.33 Antibiotic Resistance

3.2 Types of Mutation

3.31 Evolution

3.30 Mutation

3.29 Species Variation

3.21b Genetic Probabilities

3.21a Genetic Probabilities

3.20A and B Pedigree diagrams

3.18 Codominace

3.19b F1 x F1 Cross

3.19a P1 x P1 Cross

3.18b Genotypes

3.18a Phenotypes

3.2

• Oestrogen and progesterone are both examples of hormones.
• Hormones is produce in a structure of endocrine gland, hormones will travel through the blood to it target which is tissues. Target tissues hormones will effect.
• The ovary produces oestrogen which has effect of the thickness and effect number 2. is the effect to the brain which causes the ovary to release an egg.
• Produces progesterone.
• The end of the cycle is called the menstrual period.

3.9

3.12 Amniotic Fluid

• Amniotic fluid is found inside the embryo.
• If anything happens to the outside uterus amniotic fluid prevent anything happening to the unborn child.
• Amniotic fluid can't be compressed, it absorbs pressure. 

3.11 placenta

• The placenta grows out of the developing embryo not the mother. 
• The blood vessels inside the placenta are the child's blood vessels including arteries and veins.
• The placenta grows into the wall of the uterus. 
• Glucose, amino acids and fats travels through the mother's blood stream and into the wall of the uterus. 
• Glucose, amino acids and fats will cross into the child's blood at the placenta.
• Amino acids, sugars and fats will go from the mother's to the child's blood.

3.24C

3.24B

3.24 A

3.16 DNA and Genetic information

• One chromosome contains thousands of genes
  
• There are 4 kinds of bases called: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine.

• They are found in DNA in the pairs: Thymine-Adenine and Guanine-Cytosine. 
• When you magnify one gene you can see a double helix which appear parallel.
• the order of bases is always the same (ATGC) this all constructs protein for the cytoplasm

3.15 Genes

• A gene is a section of a molecule of DNA
• Genes are located in the nucleus
• A double helix shaped gene carries information of the characteristic of the organism
• Information of the gene is passed to the cytoplasm.
• After passing into the cytoplasm the gene is then turned into a protein
• Protein controls the characteristic of the gene.

3.14 Chromosomes

• A chromosome is the genetic information inside a cell. 
• Genes control the production of protein which controls a characteristic.  
• The DNA forms a shape called "the double helix"
• There are 1000's of genes in a chromosome
• Each different species have different amount of chromosomes. 
• Chromosomes operate in pairs which are based on length.

3.1 Describe the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction

4.14 enhanced greenhouse gases

- when gases increase in concentration
- the UV rays are increasingly re-emitted, warming the earth
- this is global warming
- this can lead to: melting ice caps, raising sea levels. This causes many floods in low lying countries
- climate change happens can cause change in sea level temeperature causing coral bleaching

4.13 greenhouse gases

- burning of fossil fuels = CO2, NO2, SO2
- farming- cows emitt methane (from farting)
- evaporation of water- clouds contribute to greenhouse effect
- canned sprays- CFC's break down the ozone layer

4.12 greenhouse effect

- UV light comes from the sun
- 50% of this is reflected
- UV light is is converted as infrared and absorbed
- infrared gets emitted back out
- greenhouse gases re-emitts and re-distributes infrared
- more greenhouse gases = more heat
- CFC's break down the ozone layer

4.11 gas pollution

- burning of fossil fuels results in sulphur dioxide gas
- this comes from factories and cars
- SO2 + H2O = sulphuric acid = acid rain
- acid rain can kill fish in the lakes and rivers
- carbon monoxide - fossil fuels are burned without oxygen
- blocks haemogloblin from carrying oxygen
- can lead to light headedness, a headache and in worst case death. This is caused by not having enough oxygen. In your body

Energy Efficiency

Losses in the owl is from respiration, producing energy for flight, digestion, movement, the nervous system. 

All organisms finally die and are broken down by micro-organisms living on the dead and decaying remains of other micro-organisms. 

100Kj of grass energy represents grass eaten by the herbivore. 

Mouse have to walk around and find their food and carry out the process of respiration. 

90Kj of energy left is lost from respiration and undigested food.

Energy and substances in food chains

Bush grass is eaten by impala. 

Bush grass is the producer Impala is the primary consumer leopard is the secondary

consumer.

Producer turns light energy into chemical energy - takes the form of organic molecules including carbohydrates, proteins and lipids --> what we call food.

These molecules are composed of C-H bonds, C-O bonds, C-C bonds, O-H bonds and C-N bonds - ALL represent energy. 

Food Webs

• Food webs allow better description of the ecosystem.
• Food web allows us to show organisms feeding at different trophic levels. 
• Results in food chains becoming linked.
• Organisms may be feeding on multiple prey.
• Organisms can have multiple predators.

Food Chain

Trophic Level

4.3 Quadrats samples

4.2 Quadrats

Ecosystem

3.4 Plant Fertilisation

Pollination

Transpiration

Water is turned from liquid to gas by heat from the sunlight

Evaporation occures thriugh the stomatal pores

The water is found in the soil where the roots take it up to the leaf through the xylem

The water diffuses and turns into a diffusion gradient

Plants and Stimuli, Geotrapism and Phototrpism

Stimuli is the change in the environment. For example Change in temperature, light and gravity
The Receptor detects the Stimuli
The Receptor then sends the Stimuli to the Response
The plant responds differently to each stimuli for example if the stimuli is light then the it will respond as a phototropism if the stimuli is Gravity then it will respond as a Geotropism

Geotropism
Geotropism is the growth response to gravity

Phototropism
Phototropism is the growth responce to light. If the light is shining directly above the stem tip, the stem will grow upwards. But if the sunlight is shining from the side then the stem tim will bend towards the light.

Uptake of water notes

• The branching pattern of the roots increases the surface area of itself for absorbstion of water
• Roots will branch out to find a water source
• Epidermal cells have root hair with also increase the area of absorbsion of water
• There is movement of active transport of minerals and osmosis of water in the epidermal cells
• The minerals are dissolved in water and is tranported up to the leaf by the xylem